normalized quantity
71X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy — [ right|thumb|350px|Basic components of a monochromatic XPS system.] X ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a quantitative spectroscopic technique that measures the elemental composition, empirical formula, chemical state and electronic state… …
72Covariance and contravariance of vectors — For other uses of covariant or contravariant , see covariance and contravariance. In multilinear algebra and tensor analysis, covariance and contravariance describe how the quantitative description of certain geometric or physical entities… …
73HSL and HSV — Fig. 1. HSL (a–d) and HSV (e–h). Above (a, e): cut away 3D models of each. Below: two dimensional plots showing two of a model’s three parameters at once, holding the other constant: cylindrical shells (b, f) of constant saturation, in this case… …
74Resonance (chemistry) — For other uses, see Resonance (disambiguation). Two of the contributing structures of nitrogen dioxide In chemistry, resonance or mesomerism [1] is a way of describing delocalized electrons within certain molecules or …
75Perturbation theory (quantum mechanics) — In quantum mechanics, perturbation theory is a set of approximation schemes directly related to mathematical perturbation for describing a complicated quantum system in terms of a simpler one. The idea is to start with a simple system for which a …
76Mean field theory — (MFT, also known as self consistent field theory) is a method to analyse physical systems with multiple bodies. A many body system with interactions is generally very difficult to solve exactly, except for extremely simple cases (random field… …
77Price level — A price level is a hypothetical measure of overall prices for some set of goods and services, in a given region during a given interval, normalized relative to some base set. Typically, a price level is approximated with a price index .… …
78Numerical weather prediction — Weather models use systems of differential equations based on the laws of …
79B₀ — B0, that is B subscript zero , is also generally used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging to denote the net magnetization vector . Although in physics and mathematics the notation to represent a physical quantity can be arbitrary, it is generally… …
80Redundancy (information theory) — Redundancy in information theory is the number of bits used to transmit a message minus the number of bits of actual information in the message. Informally, it is the amount of wasted space used to transmit certain data. Data compression is a way …
