- Ancient technology
: "See
Ancient technology in Stargate for the technology of the aliens known as the Ancients in the fictionalStargate universe".During the growth of the
ancient civilization s, ancient technology was the result from advances inengineering in ancient times. These advances in thehistory of technology stimulated societies to adopt new ways of living and governance.This article includes the advances in technology and the development of several engineering arts before the
Middle Ages , which began after thefall of the Western Roman Empire in AD 476, [Clare, I. S. (1906). Library of universal history: containing a record of the human race from the earliest historical period to the present time; embracing a general survey of the progress of mankind in national and social life, civil government, religion, literature, science and art. New York: Union Book. Page 1519 (cf., Ancient history, as we have already seen, ended with the fall of the Western Roman Empire; [...] )] [United Center for Research and Training in History. (1973). Bulgarian historical review. Sofia: Pub. House of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences] . Page 43. (cf. ... in the history of Western Europe, which marks both the end of ancient history and the beginning of the Middle Ages, is the fall of the Western Empire.)] the death ofJustinian I in the 6th century, [Robinson, C. A. (1951). Ancient history from prehistoric times to the death of Justinian. New York: Macmillan.] the coming ofIslam in the 7th century, [Breasted, J. H. (1916). [http://books.google.com/books?id=vwZqAAAAIAAJ Ancient times, a history of the early world: an introduction to the study of ancient history and the career of early man] . Boston: Ginn and Company. ] or the rise ofCharlemagne in the 8th century. [Myers, P. V. N. (1916). [http://books.google.com/books?id=gSQOAAAAYAAJ Ancient history] . New York [etc.] : Ginn and company.] For technologies developed in medieval societies, seeMedieval technology andInventions in medieval Islam .ummary
The characteristics of
Ancient Egyptian technology are indicated by a set of artifacts and customs that lasted for thousands of years. The Egyptians invented and used many basic machines, such as the ramp and the lever, to aid construction processes. The Egyptians also played an important role in developing Mediterranean maritime technology including ships and lighthouses.The history of science and technology in India dates back to pre-modern times. The Indus Valley civilization yields evidence of hydrography, metrology and sewage collection and disposal being practiced by its inhabitants. Among the fields of science pursued in India were Ayurveda, astronomy and mathematics.
The
history of science and technology in China show significant advances in science, technology, mathematics, and astronomy. The first recorded observations of comets, solar eclipses, and supernovae were made in China. Traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture and herbal medicine were also practiced. Thefour Great Inventions of ancient China : the compass, gunpowder, papermaking, and printing, were among the most important technological advances, only known in Europe by the end of the Middle Ages.Ancient Greek technology developed at an unprecedented speed during the 5th century BC, continuing up to and including the Roman period, and beyond. Inventions that are credited to the ancient Greeks such as the gear, screw, bronze casting techniques, water clock, water organ, torsion catapult and the use of steam to operate some experimental machines and toys. Many of these inventions occurred late in the Greek period, often inspired by the need to improve weapons and tactics in war.Roman technology is the engineering practice which supported Roman civilization and made the expansion of Roman commerce and Roman military possible over nearly a thousand years. The Roman Empire had the most advanced set of technology of their time, some of which may have been lost during the turbulent eras of Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Roman technological feats of many different areas, like civil engineering, construction materials, transport technology, and some inventions such as the mechanical reaper went unmatched until the 19th century.A significant number of inventions were developed in the Islamic world, a geopolitical region that has at various times extended from al-Andalus and Africa in the west to the Indian subcontinent and Malay Archipelago in the east. Many of these inventions had direct implications for Fiqh related issues.
Ancient civilizations
It was the growth of the ancient civilizations which produced the greatest advances in technology and engineering, advances which stimulated other societies to adopt new ways of living and governance.
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia n peoples (Sumer ians,Akkad ians,Assyria ns andBabylonia ns) invented many technologies, most notably thewheel , which some consider the most important mechanical invention in history. [Ahmad Y Hassan . [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%203.htm The Crank-Connecting Rod System in a Continuously Rotating Machine] .] Other Mesopotamian inventions includemetalwork ing,copper -working,glass making, lamp making, textile weaving, flood control, water storage, as well asirrigation .They were also one of the first
Bronze age people in the world. Early on they usedcopper ,bronze andgold , and later they usediron . Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used forarmor as well as for different weapons such assword s,dagger s,spear s, and maces.The earliest type of
pump was theArchimedes screw , first used bySennacherib , King ofAssyria , for the water systems at theHanging Gardens of Babylon andNineveh in the 7th century BC, and later described in more detail byArchimedes in the 3rd century BC. [Stephanie Dalley and John Peter Oleson (January 2003). "Sennacherib, Archimedes, and the Water Screw: The Context of Invention in the Ancient World", "Technology and Culture" 44 (1).] Later during theParthia n or Sassanid periods, theBaghdad Battery , which may have been the first batteries, were created in Mesopotamia.For later medieval technologies developed in the Mesopotamian region, now known as
Iraq , seeInventions in medieval Islam .Egypt
The
Egyptians invented and used many simple machines, such as the ramp to aid construction processes. They were among the first to extractgold by large-scale mining usingfire-setting , and the first recognisablemap , theTurin papyrus shows the plan of one such mine inNubia .Egyptian
paper , made frompapyrus , andpottery was mass produced and exported throughout theMediterranean basin. Thewheel , however, did not arrive until foreign invaders introduced thechariot . They developed Mediterranean maritime technology including ships and lighthouses.For later technologies in
Ptolemaic Egypt , Roman Egypt, and Arab Egypt, seeAncient Greek technology ,Roman technology andInventions in medieval Islam respectively.India
The
Indus Valley Civilization , situated in a resource-rich area, is notable for its early application of city planning and sanitation technologies. Cites in the Indus Valley offer some of the first examples of closed gutters, public baths, and communal granaries. TheTakshashila University was an important seat of learning in the ancient world. It was the center of education for scholars from all over Asia. Many Greek, Persian and Chinese students studied here under great scholars includingKautilya , Panini, Jivaka, and Vishnu Sharma.
[Mohenjo-daro ,Pakistan .]Ancient India was also at the forefront of seafaring technology - a panel found at
Mohenjodaro , depicts a sailing craft. Ship construction is vividly described in the Yukti Kalpa Taru, an ancient Indian text on Shipbuilding. The Yukti Kalpa Taru, compiled by Bhoja Narapati is concerned with shipbuilding. (The Yukti Kalpa Taru had been translated and published by Prof. Aufrecht in his 'Catalogue of SanskritManuscripts ').Indian construction and architecture, called '
Vaastu Shastra ', suggests a thorough understanding or materials engineering, hydrology, and sanitation. Ancient Indian culture was also pioneering in its use of vegetable dyes, cultivating plants includingindigo andcinnabar . Many of the dyes were used in art and sculpture. The use ofperfumes demonstrates some knowledge ofchemistry , particularlydistillation and purification processes.China
According to the Scottish researcher
Joseph Needham , the Chinese made many first-known discoveries and developments. Major technological contributions from China include early seismological detectors,matches ,paper , sliding calipers, the double-actionpiston pump ,cast iron , the ironplough , the multi-tubeseed drill , thewheelbarrow , thesuspension bridge , theparachute ,natural gas as fuel, themagnetic compass , theraised-relief map , thepropeller , thecrossbow , theSouth Pointing Chariot , andgun powder . Other Chinese discoveries and inventions from the Medieval period, according to Joseph Needham's research, include: thepaddle wheel boat,block printing andmovable type , phosphorescent paint,chain drive , theescapement mechanism, and thespinning wheel .The solid-fuel
rocket was invented in China about 1150 AD, nearly 200 years after the invention ofblack powder (which acted as the rocket's fuel). At the same time that theage of exploration was occurring in the West, the Chinese emperors of theMing Dynasty also sent ships, some reaching Africa. But the enterprises were not further funded, halting further exploration and development. WhenFerdinand Magellan 's ships reachedBrunei in 1521, they found a wealthy city that had been fortified by Chinese engineers, and protected by a breakwater.Antonio Pigafetta noted that much of the technology of Brunei was equal to Western technology of the time. Also, there were more cannons in Brunei than on Magellan's ships, and the Chinese merchants to the Brunei court had sold themspectacles andporcelain , which were rarities in Europe. Chinese scientific understanding, however, was less developed than that in the West.Persia
The
Qanat , a water management system used for irrigation, originated inIran before the Achaemenid period of Persia. The oldest and largest known qanat is in the Iranian city ofGonabad which, after 2,700 years, still provides drinking and agricultural water to nearly 40,000 people. [ cite journal | last = Ward English | first = Paul | title = The Origin and Spread of Qanats in the Old World | journal = Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society | volume = Vol 112, No. 3 | pages = pp 170–181 | publisher =JSTOR
date = June 21, 1968 | url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-049X%2819680621%29112%3A3%3C170%3ATOASOQ%3E2.0.CO%3B2-A&size=LARGE ]Persian philosophers and inventors may have created the first batteries, sometimes known as the
Baghdad Battery , in theParthia n or Sassanid eras. Some have suggested that the batteries may have been used medicinally. Other scientists believe the batteries were used for electroplating—transferring a thin layer of metal to another metal surface—a technique still used today and the focus of a common classroom experiment. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2804257.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Riddle of 'Baghdad's batteries'] ]In the 7th century AD, Persian engineers in
Afghanistan developed an advancedwind power machine, thewindmill . [ [http://www.psigate.ac.uk/newsite/physics_timeline.html Intute: Science, Engineering and Technology ] ] [ [http://www.geocities.com/ashishmsu/phytimeline.htm New Page 1 ] ] For later medieval technologies developed in Islamic Persia, seeInventions in medieval Islam .Greek and Hellenistic
Greek and Hellenistic engineers invented many technologies and improved upon pre-existing technologies, particularly during the
Hellenistic period .Heron of Alexandria invented a basicsteam engine and demonstrated knowledge of mechanic and pneumatic systems.Archimedes invented several machines. The Greeks were unique in pre-industrial times in their ability to combine scientific research with the development of new technologies. One example is theArchimedean screw ; this technology was first conceptualized in mathematics, then built. Other technologies invented by Greek scientists include theballistae , and primitiveanalog computers like theAntikythera mechanism and thepiston pump . Greek architects were responsible for the first truedome s, and were the first to explore theGolden ratio and its relationship with geometry and architecture.Apart from
Hero of Alexandria 's steamaeolipile , Hellenistic technicians were the first to invent watermills and windwheels, making them global pioneers in three of the four known means of non-human propulsion prior to the Industrial Revolution (the fourth being sails). However, only water power became extensively used in antiquity.Other Greek inventions include torsion catapults, pneumatic catapults, crossbows, cranes, rutways, organs, the keyboard mechanism, gears, differential gears, screws, refined parchment, showers, dry docks, diving bells, odometer and astrolabes. In architecture, Greek engineers constructed monumental lighthouses such as the Pharos and devised the first central heating systems. The
Tunnel of Eupalinos is the earliest tunnel in history which has been excavated with a scientific approach from both ends.Automata like vending machines, automatic doors and many other ingenious devices were first built by Hellenistic engineers as
Ctesibius ,Philo of Byzantium and Heron. Greek technological treatises were scrupuously studied and copied by later Byzantine, Arabic and Latin European scholars and provided much of the foundation for further technological advances in these civilizations.Roman
Romans developed an intensive and sophisticated agriculture, expanded upon existing iron working technology, created laws providing for individual ownership, advanced stone masonry technology, advanced road-building (exceeded only in the 19th century), military engineering, civil engineering, spinning and weaving and several different machines like the Gallic reaper that helped to increase productivity in many sectors of the Roman economy. They also developed water power through building aqueducts on a grand scale, using water not just for drinking supplies but also for
irrigation , poweringwater mill s and in mining. They used drainage wheels extensively in deep underground mines, one device being thereverse overshot water-wheel . They were the first to applyhydraulic mining methods for prospecting for metal ores, and for extracting those ores from the ground when found using a method known ashushing .Roman engineers were the first to build monumental arches, amphitheatres, aqueducts, public baths, true arch bridges,
harbour s,reservoir s anddam s, vaults and domes on a very large scale across their Empire. Notable Roman inventions include the book (Codex),glass blowing andconcrete . Because Rome was located on a volcanic peninsula, with sand which contained suitable crystalline grains, theconcrete which the Romans formulated was especially durable. Some of their buildings have lasted 2000 years, to the present day.Roman civilization was highly urbanized by pre-modern standards. Many cities of the Imperium had over 100,000 inhabitants with the capital Rome being the largest metropolis of antiquity. Features of Roman urban life included multistory apartment buildings called
insulae , street paving, public flush toilets, glass windows and floor and wall heating. The Romans understoodhydraulics and constructedfountain s and waterworks, particularlyaqueduct s, which were the hallmark of their civilization. They exploited water power by buildingwater mill s, sometimes in series, such as the sequence found atBarbegal in southernFrance . Some Roman baths have lasted to this day. The Romans developed many technologies which were lost in theMiddle Ages , and were only fully reinvented in the 19th and 20th centuries. They also left texts describing their achievements, especiallyPliny the Elder ,Frontinus andVitruvius .Other less known Roman innovations include boat mills, arch dams and possibly
tide mill s.Inca
The engineering skills of the
Inca were great, even by today's standards. An example is the use of pieces weighing in upwards of one ton in their stonework (e.g.,Machu Picchu inPeru ), placed together so that not even a blade can fit in-between the cracks. The villages used irrigation canals anddrainage systems, making agriculture very efficient. While some claim that the Incas were the first inventors ofhydroponics , their agricultural technology was still soil based, if advanced. This technology, including tiered farm plots, allowed significant yields from steeply sloped or otherwise unproductive land. They minedgold extensively, one of the objects of the Spanishconquistador s, and created a network of paths and roads connecting their many towns and villages. River gorges were crossed by ropedsuspension bridge s, the rope made by braiding grasses.Maya
Though the
Maya civilization had no metallurgy or wheel technology, they developed complex writing and astrological systems, and created sculptural works in stone and flint. Like the Inca, the Maya also had command of fairly advanced agricultural and construction technology. Throughout this time period much of this construction, was made only by women, as men of the Maya civilization believed that females were responsible for the creation of new things.Aztec
The main contribution of the
Aztec rule was a system of communications between the conquered cities. InMesoamerica , without draft animals for transport (nor, as a result, wheeled vehicles), the roads were designed for travel on foot, just like the Inca and Mayan civilizations. They developed large cities, such asTenochtitlan , which eventually becameMexico City .ee also
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History of technology
**Medieval technology
**Inventions in medieval Islam
*History of science
*History of mathematics
*History of philosophy References
Further reading
* Humphrey, J. W. (2006). Ancient technology. Greenwood guides to historic events of the ancient world. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.
* Rojcewicz, R. (2006). The gods and technology: a reading of Heidegger. SUNY series in theology and continental thought. Albany: State University of New York Press.
* Krebs, R. E., & Krebs, C. A. (2004). Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions, and discoveries of the ancient world. Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions, and discoveries through the ages. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.
* Childress, D. H. (2000). Technology of the gods: the incredible sciences of the ancients. Kempton, Ill: Adventures Unlimited Press.
* Landels, J. G. (2000). Engineering in the ancient world. Berkeley: University of California Press.
* James, P., & Thorpe, N. (1995). Ancient inventions. New York: Ballantine Books.
* Hodges, H. (1992). Technology in the ancient world. New York: Barnes & Noble.
* National Geographic Society (U.S.). (1986). Builders of the ancient world: marvels of engineering. Washington, D.C.: The Society.
* American Ceramic Society, Kingery, W. D., & Lense, E. (1985). Ancient technology to modern science. Ceramics and civilization, v. 1. Columbus, Ohio: American Ceramic Society.
* Brown, M. (1966). On the theory and measurement of technological change. Cambridge: Cambridge U.P.
* Forbes, R. J. (1964). Studies in ancient technology. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
*toby
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