Хоупвелл

Hopewell Interaction Area and local expressions of the Hopewell tradition

Хоупвеллская традиция или Традиция Хоупвелл (иногда неверно именуется «культура Хоупвелл») — комплекс сходных индейских археологических культур, существовавших вдоль рек северо-восточной и центрально-восточной части будущих США впериод 200—500 гг. н. э. Хоупвеллская традиция состояла из раздробленных племён, связанных общей сетью торговых путей,^[1] known as the Hopewell Exchange System. At its greatest extent, the Hopewell exchange system ran from the Southeastern United States into the southeastern Canadian shores of Lake Ontario. Within this area societies participated in a high degree of exchange with the highest amount of activity along waterways. The Hopewell exchange system received materials from all over the United States. Most of the items traded were exotic materials and were received by people living in the major trading and manufacturing areas. These people then converted the materials into products and exported them through local and regional exchange networks. The objects created by the Hopewell exchange system spread far and wide and have been seen in many burials outside the Midwest.^[2]

Происхождение

Хотя о происхождении Хоупвеллской традиции всё ещё ведутся споры, Хоупвеллская культура может также считаться культурным кульминацией (climax).

Народы Хоупвеллской традиции произошли с территории западного Нью-Йорка и продвинулись на юг на территорию Огайо, где они взяли за основу погребальные традиции местной культуры Адена. Or Hopewell was said to have originated in western Illinois and spread by diffusion … to southern Ohio. Similarly, the Havana Hopewell tradition was thought to have spread up the Illinois River and into southwestern Michigan, spawning Goodall Hopewell. (Dancey 114)

Политика и иерархия

The Hopewell inherited from their Adena forbearers an incipient social stratification, a social system for promoting inter-group relationships and adjusting to food shortages. This increased social stability and reinforced sedentism, social stratification, specialized use of resources and probably, population growth.^[3] Hopewell societies cremated most of their deceased and reserved burial for only the most important people. In some sites it appears that hunters received a higher status in the community because their graves were more elaborate and contained more status goods.^[4]

The Hopewell culture had leaders, but they were not like powerful rulers who could command armies of slaves and soldiers.^[5] It is likely these cultures accorded certain families a special place of privilege. Some scholars suggest that these societies were marked by the emergence of «big-men».^[6] These leaders acquired their position because of their ability to persuade others to agree with them on important matters such as trade and religion. They also perhaps were able to develop influence by the creation of reciprocal obligations with other important members of the community. Whatever the source of their status and power, the emergence of «big-men» was another step toward the development of the highly structured and stratified sociopolitical organization called the chiefdom.^[7]

Курганы

Hopewell mounds from the Mound City Group in Ohio

Today, the best-surviving features of the Hopewell Tradition era are mounds built for uncertain purposes. Great geometric earthworks are one of the most impressive Native American monuments throughout American prehistory. Eastern Woodlands mounds have various geometric shapes and rise to impressive heights. The function of the mounds is still under debate. Due to considerable evidence and surveys, plus the good survival condition of the largest mounds, more information can be obtained.

Several scientists, including Dr. Bradley T. Lepper, Curator of Archaeology, Ohio Historical Society, hypothesize that the Octagon earthwork at Newark, Ohio, was a lunar observatory oriented to the 18.6 year cycle of minimum and maximum lunar risings and settings on the local horizon. Dr. John Eddy completed an unpublished survey in 1978, and proposed a lunar major alignment for the Octagon. Ray Hively and Robert Horn of Earlham College in Richmond, Indiana were the first researchers to analyze numerous lunar sightlines at the Newark Octagon (1982) and the High Bank earthworks (1984) in Chillicothe, Ohio.^[8] Christopher Turner noted that the Fairground Circle in Newark, Ohio aligns to the sunrise on May 4, i.e. that it marked the May cross quarter sunrise.^[9] In 1983, Christopher Turner demonstrated that the Hopeton Earthworks encode various sunrise and moonrise patterns, including the winter and summer solstices, the equinoxes, the cross quarter dates, the lunar maximum events, and the lunar minimum events.^[10]

William F. Romain has written a book on the subject of «astronomers, geometers, and magicians» at the earthworks.^[11]

Many of the mounds also contain various types of burials.

Искусство

Слюдяное изображение руки, культура Хоупвелл

Представители Хоупвелской традиции создали одни из самых изящных произведений искусства и предметов быта обеих Америк. Большая часть их работ имеет религиозную символику (significance). Их могилы полны костяными и деревянными ожерельями, украшенными сложным резным орнаментом, декорированной церемониальной глиняной посудой, декоративными пробками для ушей и брелками (pendants). Некоторые могилы обиты/устланы (lined) плетёными циновками, микой (напоминающий хлопья минерал светлого цвета) или камнем.^[12] Представители Хоупвелской традиции создавали произведения искусства в большем количестве и из более необычных материалов, чем их предшественники Адена. Зубы медведей гризли и акул, пресноводный жемчуг, морские раковины, медь и даже небольшое количество серебра были превращены в прекрасные вещи. Ремесленники Хоупвелской традиции были настоящими мастерами в резьбе по камню катлиниту, и во многих могилах полно искусно вырезанными статуэтками.^[13] The Mound of Pipes at Mound City produced over 200 stone smoking pipes depicting animals and birds in well-realized three-dimensional form.^[14] Some artwork went beyond the ordinary exotic, as Hopewell artists were expert carvers of human bone. A rare mask from Mound City was created using a human skull as a face plate.^[15] Hopewell artists created both wonderfully abstract and realistic portrayals of the human form. One tubular pipe is so realistically portrayed that we can tell the model was an achondroplastic (chondrodystropic) dwarf.^[16] Many other figurines give us details of dress, ornamentation, and even hairstyles.^[17] An example of their abstract human forms is the «Mica Hand» from the Hopewell Site in Ross Co., Ohio. Delicately cut from a piece of mica, more than 11 inches long and 6 inches wide, the hand piece was likely worn or carried for public viewing.^[18]

Местные варианты традиции Хоупвелл

Aside from the more famous Ohio Hopewell, a number of other Middle Woodland period cultures are known to the Hopewell Tradition and participated in the Hopewell Exchange Network.

Ohio Hopewell culture

Map of the Archaeological Cultures of Ohio

The greatest concentration of Hopewell ceremonial sites are in the Scioto River Valley (from Columbus to Portsmouth, Ohio) and adjacent Paint Creek, centered on Chillicothe, Ohio. These cultural centers typically contain a burial mound and a geometric earthwork complex that covers ten to hundreds of acres and sparse settlements; evidence of large resident populations is lacking at the monument complexes.^[19] The Hopewell Culture National Historical Park, encompassing mounds for which the culture is named, is in the Paint Creek Valley just a few miles from Chillicothe, Ohio. Other earthworks in the Chillicothe area include Hopeton, Mound City, Seip Mound and Earthworks, High Bank, Liberty, Cedar Bank, Anderson, Frankfort, Dunlap, Spruce Hill and Story Mound.^[20]

The Portsmouth Earthworks were constructed from 100 B.C. to 500 A.D. It is a large ceremonial center located at the confluence of the Scioto and Ohio rivers. Part of this earthwork complex extends across the Ohio River into Kentucky. The earthworks included a northern section consisting of a number of circular enclosures, two large horseshoe-shaped enclosures, and three sets of parallel-walled roads leading away from this location. One set of walls went to the southwest and may have linked to a large square enclosure located on the Kentucky side of the Ohio River. Another set went to the southeast where it crossed the Ohio River and continued to the Biggs site, a complicated circular enclosure. The third set of walls went to the northwest for an undetermined distance.^[21][22]

Marksville culture

The Marksville culture was a Hopewellian culture in the Lower Mississippi valley, Yazoo valley, and Tensas valley areas of Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri and Arkansas. It evolved into the Baytown culture and later the Coles Creek and Plum Bayou cultures. It is named for the Marksville Mound Site in Marksville, Louisiana.^[23]

Swift Creek culture

The Swift Creek culture was a Middle Woodland period archaeological culture in Georgia, Alabama, Florida, South Carolina, and Tennessee dating to around 100—800 AD.

Copena culture

The Copena culture was a Hopewellian culture in northern Alabama, Mississippi and Tennessee as well as in other sections of the surrounding region including Kentucky. The Copena name is derived from the first three letter of copper and the last three letters of the mineral galena. Copper and galena artifacts are often associated with Copena burials.^[24]

Crab Orchard culture

During the Middle Woodland period, the Crab Orchard culture population increased from a dispersed and sparsely settled Early Woodland pattern to one consisting of small and large base camps. These were concentrated on terrace and floodplain landforms associated with the Ohio River channel in southern Indiana, southern Illinois and northwestern and western Kentucky.^[25] In the far western limits of Crab Orchard culture is the O’byams Fort site, a large tuning-fork-shaped earthwork reminiscent of Ohio Hopewellian enclosures.^[26]

Havana culture

A Hopewellian people in the Illinois River and Mississippi River valleys in Iowa, Illinois, and Missouri. They are ancestral to the groups which eventually became the Mississippian Culture of Cahokia and its hinterlands.

The Toolesboro Site is a group of seven burial mounds on a bluff overlooking the Iowa River near where it joins the Mississippi River. The conical mounds were constructed between 100 BC and AD 200. At one time, there may have been as many as twelve mounds. Mound 2, the largest remaining, measures 100 feet in diameter and 8 feet in height. This mound was possibly the largest Hopewell mound in Iowa.^[27]

Kansas City Hopewell

At the western edge of the Hopewell interaction sphere are the Kansas City Hopewell. The Renner site in Riverview, Kansas City, Missouri is one of several sites near the junction of Line Creek and the Missouri River. The site contains Hopewell and Middle Mississippian remains. The Trowbridge site near Kansas City is close to the western limit of the Hopewell, «Hopewell» style pottery and stone tools, typical of the Illinois and Ohio River Valleys, are abundant at the Trowbridge site and decorated Hopewell style pottery rarely appears further west.^[28] The Cloverdale site is situated at the mouth of a small valley that opens into the Missouri River Valley, near St.Joseph, Missouri. It is a multi-component site with Kansas City Hopewell (ca. AD 100 to 500) and Steed Kisker (ca. AD 1200) occupation.^[29]

Упадок культуры

Sinnissippi Site, Sinnissippi Park, Sterling, Illinois

Около 500 г. н. э. система торговых обменов культуры Хоупвелл приходит в упадок, сооружение курганов прекращается, связаные с культурой виды искусства больше не создаются. Война представляется маловероятной причиной, свидетельства боевых столкновений в этот период отсутствуют. Как одна из возможных причин, рассматриваются климатические изменения: похолодание могло вызвать миграцию животных на север или запад, поскольку погода могла пагубно сказаться на привычной для них растительной пище. Также возможно, что появление лука со стрелами caused stress on already depleted populations.^[30] The breakdown in societal organization could have been a result of full-scale agriculture. Scholars Dunnell and Greenlee suggest an idea of waste behavior. «They argue that energy was diverted from biological reproduction during a period when climate irregularities favored small families. As climate became predictable from year to year, energy was turned from waste behavior to food production» (Dancey 131). Still, the true reasoning of their evident dispersal is yet to be discovered, and much more knowledge is needed.

Предшественник: Early Woodland period Adena culture

Hopewell Tradition 200 BCE-500 CE

Преемник: Late Woodland

См. также

• Национально-исторический парк культуры Хоупвелл

Примечания

1. ↑ Images of the Past, 5th edition. — New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008. — С. 274–277. — ISBN 978-0-07-340520-9
2. ↑ Brian M. Fagan Ancient North America. — Thames and Hudson, London.
3. ↑ D. Brose Hopewellian Archaeology. — Kent University Press. — С. 3–8.
4. ↑ Native American Government-Eastern Woodlands.
5. ↑ Hopewell-Ohio History Centrel.
6. ↑ B.D. Smith The Archaeology of the southeastern United States: from Dalton to de Soto, 10,500 to 500 BP.. — University of Georgia Press. — С. 1–92.
7. ↑ Native American Government-Eastern Woodlands.
8. ↑ The Octagon Earthworks: A Neolithic Lunar Observatory. Проверено 11 сентября 2008.
9. ↑ Christopher S. Turner Archaeoastronomy Journal. — University Press of Kentucky, 1982. — С. -9.
10. ↑ Christopher S. Turner "An Astronomical Interpretation of the Hopeton Earthworks". — C.S.Turner, 1983.
11. ↑ Newark Earthwork Cosmology.
12. ↑ Ancestral Art-Information on Hopewell Culture. Проверено 11 сентября 2008.
13. ↑ Susan Power Early Art of the Southeastern Indians-Feathered Serpents and Winged Beings. — University of Georgia Press. — ISBN 0820325015
14. ↑ Hopewell (1-400CE). Проверено 11 сентября 2008.
15. ↑ Susan Power Early Art of the Southeastern Indians-Feathered Serpents and Winged Beings. — University of Georgia Press. — С. 34. — ISBN 0820325015
16. ↑ A Survey of Adena-Hopewell (Scioto) Anthropomorphic Portraiture. Проверено 11 сентября 2008.
17. ↑ Susan Power Early Art of the Southeastern Indians-Feathered Serpents and Winged Beings. — University of Georgia Press. — С. 34. — ISBN 0820325015
18. ↑ Susan Power Early Art of the Southeastern Indians-Feathered Serpents and Winged Beings. — University of Georgia Press. — С. 36. — ISBN 0-08203-2501-5
19. ↑ m7/98 Encyclopedia of North American Prehistory M. Проверено 11 сентября 2008.
20. ↑ Chillicothe Earthworks-Ohio Central History. Проверено 11 сентября 2008.
21. ↑ Portsmouth Earthworks-Ohio Central History. Проверено 11 сентября 2008.
22. ↑ R. Barry Lewis Kentucky Archaeology. — University Press of Kentucky, 1996. — ISBN 0-8131-1907-3
23. ↑ Louisiana Prehistory-Marksville. Проверено 11 сентября 2008.
24. ↑ Copena. Проверено 11 сентября 2008.
25. ↑ Ian K. deNeeve Midwest Archaeological Conference. Проверено 11 сентября 2008.
26. ↑ R. Barry Lewis Kentucky Archaeology. — University Press of Kentucky, 1996. — ISBN 0-8131-1907-3
27. ↑ Toolesboro Mounds History. Проверено 12 сентября 2008.
28. ↑ Trowbridge (14WY1) is an archaeological site located near Kansas City, Kansas.. Проверено 12 сентября 2008.
29. ↑ Talk-Hopewell Tradition. Проверено 12 сентября 2008.
30. ↑ Free Essays-Hopewell Indian Culture. Проверено 11 сентября 2008.

Ссылки

• Ohio Historical Society’s Archaeology Page
• Ancient Earthworks of Eastern North America
• Octagon Moonrise website
• Ohio Memory